This is a glossary page for my historical novels. While notes here are historically accurate (at least I try to use accurate sources), they span many periods, and authors of historical c-novels tend to mix and match different dynasties and periods to create their settings.
This page is perpetually on construction.
Imperial Family
List of Imperial Titles (Male):
- Emperor (皇帝 Huangdi)
- Prince or Imperial Son (皇子 Huangzi): All sons born from an emperor are called prince, but this is not a title. Once they reach adulthood, they will be conferred a Wang title. An imperial son is politely addressed as dianxia (殿下), which roughly translates as ‘His Highness.’ Their main wife is called Huangzifei (郡王妃) or simply Princess Consort.
- Wang (王) or Qinwang (亲王): Prince of The First Rank. A title that was given to the adult sons of an emperor. A wang is politely addressed as Wangye (王爷), which roughly translates as ‘His Highness.’ His main wife is called Wangfei (王妃), which roughly translates as ‘Princess Consort.’
- Junwang (郡王): Prince of the Second Rank. A title that was given to the sons of a qinwang born from his main consort. His main wife is called Junwangfei (郡王妃).
- Fuma (驸马): Prince Consort. A title given to the spouse of an imperial daughter/granddaughter.
- State Uncle (国舅): A title given to the maternal uncle of the current emperor, alternatively, it could also be given to the younger brother of the current empress dowager or the father of the current empress. This title only lasts for one generation and is purely honorary.
List of Imperial Titles (Female):
- Empress Dowager (皇太后 Huangtaihou): Mother of the reigning Emperor.
- Empress (皇后 Huanghou): Wife of the Reigning Emperor. His concubines and consorts are divided into multiple ranks such as consorts (妃 fei), ladies (人 ren), etc.
- Princess (公主, Gongzhu): Princess of the first rank. A title that was given to the emperor’s daughters. In each generation, the highest ranking princess is called Grand Eldest Princess (大长公主), usually conferred by the reigning emperor to one of his sisters.
- Junzhu (郡主): Princess of the Third Rank. A title usually granted to the daughter of a qinwang.
- Xianzhu (县主): Princess of the Fourth Rank. A title was usually granted to the daughter of a junwang or imperial shizi.
- Junjun (郡君): Lady of the First Rank. A title usually granted to a daughter born to a secondary consort of a qinwang.
- Xianjun (县君): Lady of the Second Rank. A title usually granted to a daughter born to a secondary consort of a junwang.
- Xiangjun (乡君): Lady of the Third Rank or Commandery Lady. A title usually granted to the granddaughters of a junwang.
Imperial Chinese Harem System: The ranks of imperial concubines fluctuated across Chinese history, yet their significance endured due to their crucial roles in overseeing the inner court and influencing imperial succession, where heirs were ranked not only by birth order but also by the status of their mothers. Generally, the Empress (皇后) stands on the top as the Emperor’s only legal wife, followed by the Imperial Noble Consort (皇貴妃; Huangguifei), Four Consorts which are Noble Consort (貴妃; Guifei), Shu Consort (淑妃, Shufei), De Consort (德妃 Defei), Xian Consort (賢妃, Xianfei). Not all dynasties have Imperial Noble Consort, and in its absence, Noble Consort Guifei led the four consorts, second in position only to the empress.
Eastern Palace (东宫): The resident of the crown prince is always called Eastern Palace, regardless of its name.
Longevity Festival (寿圣节): How an Emperor’s birthday was called.
Residence and Family
Dishu System: Children born from the legal wife (or registered under the legal wife’s name) are called di (嫡) children, while children of concubines shu (庶) children. It’s not as simple as di being legitimate with shu being illegitimate, since shu-born children are equally recognized by their paternal clan and recorded in its genealogy. By modern standards, shu children are legitimate enough. It was children born from outside mistresses, whose mothers aren’t officially recognized as concubines, who are considered illegitimate, and when they were being recognized as a shu child, it was a form of legitimization.
Polygamy System: China’s polygamy system acknowledges only one legal wife, with the rest being concubines.
- Legal wife (正室 zhengshi) or Di wife (嫡妻 diqi): The only woman who goes through the full marriage rites with the man. Otherwise, she is considered a concubine. A legal wife is also the legal mother (嫡母 dimu) for all his husband’s children, both di-born and shu-born. Children of concubines are forbidden to call their birth mother ‘mother.’
- Concubine (姨娘 yiniang or 妾 qie): Other women who are not the wife. Typically, a man does not have concubines before he has a legal wife, though that doesn’t mean they remain celibate—any woman they sleep with is simply not given a proper concubine status. Concubines are generally given a residence within the compound of the house and were treated as semi-members of the household, but they are, essentially, property of the household and can be sold like other indentured servants.
- Tongfang (通房): Bed-warming maid. Maidservants that serve the daily needs of a man and become his bed partner. Unlike concubines, they still have to do their duty as servants. If they are especially favored or give birth to a child, they might be elevated to the status of a concubine. If they remain tongfang, however, they won’t be allowed to raise their own child, who is their social superior.
- Outside Mistress: Women who weren’t given any status or recognition. If a child was born, she or he won’t even be acknowledged as the man’s child unless he brings them back home to be recorded in the family’s genealogy.
Naming Convention
Forms of Self-Address: In Imperial China, there were numerous ways to refer to oneself in the third person, particularly in formal settings. Rather than using the common pronoun 我 (I), individuals would use specific terms based on both their own status and that of the person they were addressing. Therefore, when a character begins to use 我 (I) in conversation—where they previously did not—it often indicates that they are becoming more comfortable or informal. To further complicate it, a person may use different self address depending on the status of the person they talk to (lower/equal/higher). For example, an official may call himself ‘This official’ in front of his subordinate, but call himself ‘this subject’ when facing an imperial family member.
- This Emperor (朕 zhen): How the emperor addresses himself in front of his subjects.
- This Palace (本宫 běngōng): Self-address used by an empress, high-ranking consorts, daughters of emperors, and sometimes the crown prince. In the imperial palace, not everyone was granted a full palace to use. Low-ranking concubines, for example, have to share one palace together. So, the notion of This Palace refers to the fact that they are owners of a palace.
- This Dowager (哀家 Āijiā): Used by an empress dowager to address herself. It more or less translates as ‘the mourning one.’ Refers to her status as a widow (therefore, always in the mourning of his husband).
- This Subject (臣 chen): How a court official refers to himself in front of the Emperor or other imperial family members. His family members, in turn, use self-address forms related to their relationship with the court official (i.e. This subject daughter, This subject wife, etc.).
- This Wang (本王 Benwang): Can also be translated as ‘This Prince.’ This is how a Qinwang addresses himself in front of someone with equal or lower status than him.
Nicknames by Birth Order: It is kinda common to call someone not by their given name, but by their surname followed by their birth order in the family. For example, from the name Liu Dalang (刘大郎) we know that he is the eldest son of the Liu family with Da means ‘eldest’ and Lang means ‘young man’ (its female counterpart being ‘niang’ or ‘nu’). Sometimes, we also find a format of surname+Xiao+number (i.e. Lu Xiaowu). In this case, ‘Xiao’ (lit: small), indicates that she or he is the youngest child in the family. So Lu Xiaowu is the fifth (wu) and youngest (xiao) of the Lu family.
- 大 (da): eldest (i.e. Dalang)
- 二 (er): second (i.e. Erlang)
- 三 (san): third (i.e. Sanlang)
- 四 (si): fourth (i.e. Shilang)
- 五 (wu): fifth (i.e. Wulang)
- 六 (liu): sixth (i.e. Liulang)
- 七 (qi): seventh (i.e. Qilang)
Shi (氏): In China, a woman continues to use her surname upon marriage. She’d be called both Mrs/Madam/Lady [husband’s surname] and [her surname]-shi.
Servants
Court Lady (女官): Sometimes also translated as ‘female officials,’ they are women employed by the imperial palace to serve in managerial posts within the private quarters of the palace, which makes them different from regular palace maids. They are politely called Gugu (姑姑).
Momo (嬷嬷): Momo or mama is a senior servant woman, usually in managerial positions.
Government and Bureaucracy
Rank of Imperial Examinations:
- Tongsheng (童生): an examinee who had passed the county/prefecture examination of the entry-level examinations.
- Shengyuan (生員) or Xiucai (秀才): an examinee who had passed the academy examination of the entry-level examinations.
- Juren (舉人): a scholar who passed the triennial provincial examination.
- Gongshi (貢士): a scholar who passed the triennial metropolitan examination.
- Jinshi (進士): a scholar who passed the triennial palace examination (the last and highest level, which takes venue in the imperial palace, often under the Emperor’s direct supervision). The three top scorers are given distinct titles: Zhuangyuan (狀元) for the top scorer, Bangyan (榜眼) for the second scorer, and Tanhua (探花) for the third scorer. The rest are simply called Jinshi.
List of Imperial Offices:
- Yamen (衙门): A designation of bottom-level units of administration, mostly on the district level. The office mainly handles grassroots police duty and administration affairs. Led by a prefectural magistrate.
- Bureau of Astronomy (欽天監): In charge of observing, recording, interpreting, and predicting the movements of the celestial bodies. The result of their works ranged from creating almanacs and calendars to divinitions.
- Palace Administration Department (殿中省):
- Palace Food Bureau (尚食局): A bureau under the Palace Administration Department. Head by a supervisor (管事), usually eunuchs.
- Court of Imperial Amarments (武备院):
- Music Bureau (乐府): As its name states, a bureau in charge of entertainment during state banquets.
- Jinwu Guard (金吾衛): ‘Imperial Insignia Guard’ was the name of one of three imperial bodyguard garrisons during the Tang dynasty.
- Imperial Guard (禁卫军):
- Hanlin Academy (翰林院) was an institution subordinated to the central government and entrusted with the draft of official documents. It was never consistently organized but was loosely staffed with so-called academicians.
- Metropolitan Magistrate (京兆尹 or 順天府): The magistrate office that oversee the capital.
- Institute of Literature: One of the offices under the palace Chancellery. Just like the Hanlin Academy, the officials who work there are called academicians (学士).
List of Government Officials:
- Censor (御史):
- Regional Inspector (刺史): An official in charge of supervising local officials in the region. They had no administrative seat but toured the province under their jurisdiction, and observed how the official duties were carried out.
Grand Secretariat (内閣): Translated as Cabinet in the modern era, Grand Secretariat was a central government institution during the Ming and Qing periods. Members of this institution are called Grand Secretaries, with the most senior one being the de facto leader, called Senior Grand Secretary (首辅). Since they screened documents submitted to the emperor from all governmental agencies and had the power to draft suggested rescripts for the emperor, some senior Grand Secretaries were able to dominate the whole government, acting as de facto Chancellors.
The Three Dukes (Grand Preceptor, Grand Tutor, Grand Protector): In some early dynasties, this is the collective name for the three highest officials, although the meaning, roles, and actual power they hold eventually shifted over time. One of the interpretations of these roles was three senior officials in charge of the crown prince’s education, sometimes also taking on the role of guardian and advisor.
- Grand Preceptor (太师; Tàishī): Precursor to Chancellor
- Grand Tutor (太傅; Tàifù): Precursor to Grand Secretary.
- Grand Protector (太保; Tàibǎo): Precursor to Grand Commandant.
Three Departments and Six Ministries: The primary administrative structure in imperial China from the Sui dynasty to the Yuan dynasty. The three departments are:
- Chancellery (门下省): Headed by a Director (门下侍中), who was assisted by a Deputy Director (shilang 門下侍郎)
- Department of State Affairs (尚书省):
- Secretariat (中书省):
There are six ministries under the Department of State Affairs, each headed by a minister (尚书 shangshu).
- Ministry of Personnel(吏部):
- Ministry of Revenue (户部):
- Ministry of Rites (礼部):
- Ministry of War (兵部):
- Ministry of Justice (刑部):
- Ministry of Works (工部):
Nine Courts and Five Directorates (九寺五監): Agencies of the central government of China throughout imperial times. Each court is presided over by a Minister (卿), assisted by a Deputy Minister (少卿).
- Court of Imperial Sacrifices (太常寺)
- Court of Imperial Entertainments (光禄寺)
- Court of Imperial Regalia (卫尉寺)
- Court of the Imperial Family (宗正寺)
- Court of the Imperial Stud (太仆寺)
- Court of Judicial Review (大理寺): The highest judiciary power in imperial China. It is in charge of reviewing judicial proceedings at all administrative levels and singling out the cases for a retrial by court officials or the emperor himself. It is headed by a Chief Justice (大理寺卿) and two deputies.
- Court of State Ceremonial (鸿胪寺)
- Court of Imperial Granaries (司农寺)
- Court of the Imperial Treasury (太府寺)
Peerage
List of Nobility Ranks: Peerages below the royal ranks are divided into five levels that may or may not come with fiefdom. Many peerages are also limited, which means they can only be inherited by a few generations, after which the peerages are either returned to the crown or downgraded.
- Duke (公)
- Marquis (侯)
- Count (伯)
- Viscount (子)
- Baron (男)
Titled Madam (命妇) Women who were granted titles by the imperial courts. Generally wives or mothers of high-ranking officials or female members of collateral imperial clans. Like male counterparts, female titles also come with ranks and stipends.
Shizi (世子): Heir apparent to a title. In some dynasties, Shizi is considered a title—similar to how a crown prince is different from regular princes—and their appointment must be reported to a relevant office.
World of Martial Arts
Jianghu (江湖): Literally translated as river and lake, Jianghu is a society of vagabond martial artists. This is the setting of many Chinese martial arts novels (think Condor Heroes series).
Qi (气): Also known as chi, aura, or internal energy, it was the basis of martial arts in semi-fantasy settings, which allowed the practitioners to do maneuvers beyond human limits.
Lightness arts (轻功): Also known as qinggong, this is a movement technique from Chinese martial arts. In semi-fantasy settings, the practitioners of lightness arts can perform such feats as leaping a few meters high, running tirelessly at high speed, etc.
Qimen Dunjia (奇门遁甲): An ancient Chinese divination method used in military strategy and fate calculation. It employs complex calculations to precisely determine the ideal timing, position, and direction to achieve desired metaphysical effects.
Sleeve arrow (袖箭): Hidden weapon in the form of a mechanism that could launch an arrow with a push of a button. Usually hidden within one’s sleeve, hence the name. It cannot shoot a long distance but is very handy to catch the target off guard.
Life of the Privileged Class
Six Arts of the Gentleman: The Six Arts formed the basis of education in ancient Chinese culture, which are: rites, music, archery, equestrianism, literature, and mathematics.
Games:
- Chuiwan (捶丸): A traditional Chinese game with rules that resemble modern golf.
- Cuju (蹴鞠): An ancient Chinese football game, that resembles a mix of basketball, association football, and volleyball.
- Pitch-pot (投壶): A traditional Chinese game that requires players to throw arrows or sticks from a set distance into a large, sometimes ornate, canister.
Transportation:
- Palanquin (软轿): A method of transportation reserved for elites. Carried on the shoulders by the bearers.
- Hand-drawn carriage (辇): A special carriage used by the imperial family.
Time and Measurement
Time measurement: Hour (shichen) refers to the ancient measurement of an hour, which lasts around two modern hours (120 minutes). One incense stick of time refers to a short time span, generally 15 minutes. One cup of tea refers to the time needed for a cup of tea to cool, around 5 minutes.
Geng-dian (更–點): A time-measurement system uses predetermined signals to define the time during the night. Geng (rotation, watch) is a time signal given by a drum or gong. There are five geng a night (first watch to fifth watch), lasting around 150 minutes each.
Jin (斤): Unit of measurement about 0.5 kilograms.
Cun (尺): Unit of measurement known as Chinese foot. One-third of a meter.
Zhang (丈): Unit of measurement around three meters.
Li (里): Unit of measurement around half a kilometer, or one-third of an English mile.
Money and Business
Money House (钱铺): Private banks in ancient China. One of its main functions is issuing silver notes that can be exchanged back into hard silver at any given time, meaning that the trust of an establishment is very important to ensure the usability of the issued notes.
Silver notes (银票): Precursor of paper bills. The key difference with modern bills is that a silver note can be exchanged with real, hard silver at any given time at the establishment that issued it, whether government-backed or privately owned.
Escort Agency (镖局): A group of professional escorts who provide protection to traveling merchants.
Imperial warrant (皇商): Merchants who supply goods to the imperial family.
Culture, Superstition, and Belief
Zhonghe Festival (中和节): A festival celebrated on the first day of the second month of the lunar calendar, which marks the beginning of spring. As such, this festival has deep roots in agricultural belief.
Medicine and Hygiene
Bath beans (澡豆): Ancient soap, made from powdered beans and other ingredients.
Yin and Yang in TCM: The Yin and Yang concept, as well as the concept of Qi, form the basis of Chinese Traditional Medicine (TCM), which is all about balancing the Yin and Yang. When afflicted with something of the Yang nature, seek treatment that promotes the Yin element, and vice versa. Yang generally means fire, sun, hot, man while Yin means ice, moon, cold, woman.
Others
Post station: A facility on a main road or trade route where travelers can rest and swap exhausted animals, typically horses, for fresh ones.